Genetic testing before breeding helps identify if parent dogs carry diseases or undesirable traits that could be passed onto offspring.
All breeders have a responsibility to choose sires and dams that have the best chance of producing sound, healthy puppies.
Every dog can have health conditions that are passed onto their puppies; Labrador Retrievers are no exception.
If you are reading this, then I assume you know the long-term value of puppies produced from genetically health tested & OFA certified parents.
Although genetic testing will not exclude all possible inherited and acquired diseases;
it does greatly reduce the risk of your puppy developing future inheritable health conditions.
Whether you get a puppy from Patriot Labrador Retrievers or another breeder, I cannot stress enough how important it is to verify that appropriate health testing has been done AND that the parents are suitable to use for breeding. Often times, breeders will state their dogs have clearances or are health tested, when this is not the case. Trust me on this as I’ve learned some hard lessons in dealing with other breeders when researching to purchase my own dogs. I continue to be astounded at the lack of integrity in the breeding industry!
The Labrador Retriever Club, Inc (LRC), along with the Canine Health Information Center (CHIC), both recommend
the following health screening tests for all breeding Labrador Retrievers:
Hip Dysplasia
Elbow Dysplasia
Advanced Cardiac
Companion Animal Eye Registry (CAER) certification (annually)
Progressive Retinal Atrophy, Progressive Rod-Cone Degeneration
Exercise Induced Collapse
Centronuclear Myopathy
D Locus (Dilute) DNA test
Some diseases or abnormalities are purely genetic, while others are multifactorial; meaning they involve or are dependent on a variety of contributors. Joint & cardiac diseases are considered multifactorial; however, the chance of producing healthy offspring is greatly increased by choosing parents that have been properly tested and pass screening guidelines.
Be sure to verify this information by asking to see the genetic certificates or by going to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals website OFA.
Health tested dogs can be accessed by a simple search using the dog’s full registered name (exact spelling) or AKC registration number.
Note: Many breeders use Embark as their sole genetic testing lab. While Embark does test for many common Labrador Retriever conditions, Embark does NOT test for: RD/OSD1 or Copper Toxicosis. Any dog tested by Embark prior to March 2023 does not include Stargardt Disease. Although the LRC or CHIC do not recommend these health screenings, these conditions are becoming more apparent within the Labrador Retriever breed.
Patriot Labrador Retrievers takes the lifelong health of our puppies seriously! Therefore, we not only test for all the above, we test for every known genetic condition to ever affect Labrador Retrieves.
The dog does not carry any copies of the mutant gene for the disease. It will never have the disease or pass the disease onto its offspring. Puppies are considered ‘clear by parentage’ for any particular genetic disease when both parents are clear for that same genetic disease.
The dog has one copy of the mutant gene and one copy of the normal gene. It will not have and will not develop the disease. This dog should only be bred to dogs clear of the same disease to prevent producing dogs affected by the disease.
The dog has two copies of the mutant gene. It will have the disease and be affected by the disease at some point in its lifetime. Affected dogs should only be bred to clear dogs to ensure they produce no affected dogs; however, every pup produced of this pairing would be carriers of the disease.
Autosomal Recessive: A pattern of inheritance in which an affected dog must have two copies of an abnormal gene in order to present with the disease or trait.
Autosomal Dominant: A pattern of inheritance in which an 'affected' dog has one copy of a gene that contains a change or mutation and one normal gene on a pair of chromosomes. Offspring have a 50% chance of inheriting the disease-causing gene.
Variable Expressivity: Refers to individuals who have the mutation, but their clinical presentation may vary from mild to severe.
Autosomal Incomplete Dominant: Dogs only need to inherit one copy of the mutated gene to be at an increased risk of developing the disease.
Incomplete Penetrance: Not all dogs inheriting two copies (one from each parent) will display obvious physical characteristics.
Hip Dysplasia is a condition that occurs during the growth stage caused by the loosening of the hip joint. As a dog grows, the cartilage and bone of the hip begin to wear down. Over time, this can lead to arthritis, muscle atrophy, and limited mobility. Hip Dysplasia most commonly affects large-breed dogs, and research shows that it is largely hereditary. The severity can range from slight to severe. Symptoms of the inherited form usually develop between 4 months and 2 years of age.
Environmental factors also play a role in the development of hip dysplasia. Activities such as going up and down stairs, excessive exercise, hard surfaces, forced running, etc. all increases the risk of hip dysplasia.
Reducing the risk: Developing hip dysplasia can be reduced by testing and only breeding dogs free of hip dysplasia. Although not an exact science, its been shown that puppies produced by parents with excellent-good hips have better odds of not developing hip dysplasia. Puppies should be given proper nutrition & kept at a lean weight during growth. Avoid any excessive joint stress while your pup is growing. Dogs with hip dysplasia should not be bred.
To learn more about Hip Dysplasia goto https://ofa.org/diseases/hip-dysplasia/
Elbow Dysplasia is a condition involving multiple developmental abnormalities of the elbow joint. The elbow joint is a complex joint made up of 3 bones (radius, ulna, and humerus). If the 3 bones do not fit together perfectly due to growth abnormalities, abnormal weight distribution on areas of the joint can occur; thus causing pain, lameness, and the development of arthritis. The exact cause of elbow dysplasia in dogs remains unclear. There are a number of theories as to the exact cause of the disease that include genetics, defects in cartilage growth, trauma, diet, and so on. It is most commonly suspected this is a multifactorial disease that causes growth disturbances.
Reducing the risk: Both genetic and environmental factors contribute to elbow dysplasia. The risk of developing these conditions can be reduced with testing, but not prevented. The complex genetic factors associated with this disorder have not been identified. Dogs with symptomatic and/or bilateral elbow dysplasia should not be bred.
To learn more about Elbow Dysplasia goto https://ofa.org/diseases/elbow-dysplasia/
Tricuspid valve dysplasia (TVD) is an inherited congenital cardiac condition that causes abnormalities to the tricuspid valve. TVD can be fatal and affects up to 7% of all dogs and is found mostly in Labrador retrievers, who account for more than 25% of reported cases. Some cardiologists estimate that more than 30% of Labrador Retrievers could be affected; however, due to many breeders not testing or reporting TVD affected dogs, the exact number of cases is unknown.
It is recommended that dogs with tricuspid valve dysplasia should not be bred.
Tricuspid Valve Dysplasia (TVD)
Posted with permissions of the author, Laurel McCord, of Bringan Labrador Retrievers.
Exercise-Induced Collapse is an inherited neuromuscular disorder. EIC presents as exercise intolerance in otherwise healthy dogs. Affected dogs are usually diagnosed before two years of age and appear normal during low to moderately strenuous activity. However, shortly after strenuous exercise, affected dogs will begin to walk with a wobbly, uncoordinated gait that often only affects the hind limbs. Dogs remain mentally alert and are not in pain during episodes. In some circumstances, the symptoms can progress to full body weakness with low muscle tone (flaccid paralysis), confusion, loss of consciousness, seizures and sometimes death. The episodes typically last 5-10 minutes and most dogs will recover within 15-30 minutes.
Though the exact frequency of EIC in the Labrador Retriever population is unknown, 39% out of 30,592 Labrador Retrievers tested were carriers of the mutation and 7% were at-risk or affected. The reported frequency of EIC in Labrador Retrievers carrying two copies of the mutation is approximately 84%, so not all dogs with two copies of the mutation will have clinical signs.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive with Variable Expressivity.
Centronuclear Myopathy is an inherited progressive muscle disease. CNM is serious disorder associated with generalized muscle weakness, awkward gait, and difficulty eating. Symptoms also include generalized muscle atrophy, downward flexion of the head and neck, low muscle tone and more frequent episodes of collapse when exposed to cold temperatures. Affected dogs typically present between 6 weeks to 7 months of age. Progression of the disease tends to stabilize around one year of age and dogs typically have a normal life span; however, affected dogs usually have life-long medical problems due to the underlying muscle disease. There is no treatment for this condition.
The abnormal allele responsible for this disorder was identified by researchers at the Alfort School of Veterinary Medicine in France. Though the frequency of CNM in the Labrador Retriever population is unknown, in one 2 year study of 1,757 Labradors tested from the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Ireland and continental Europe, 13.9% were carriers of the mutation.
Other Names: Hereditary myopathy of the Labrador Retriever, Type II muscle fiber deficiency, CNM
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Progressive Retinal Atrophy, progressive rod-cone degeneration is a late onset, inherited eye disease affecting Labrador Retrievers. PRA-prcd occurs as a result of degeneration in the rod and cone photoreceptor cells of the retina, which are important for vision in both dim and bright light. Evidence of retinal disease can first be seen at around 1.5 years of age, however most affected dogs will not show signs of vision loss until 4 to 6 years of age. The rod type cells are affected first and dogs will initially have vision deficits in dim light (night blindness) and loss of peripheral vision. Over time, affected dogs lose night vision and begin to show visual deficits in bright light. There is no cure for this disease and it will eventually lead to complete blindness in most dogs.
Other inherited disorders of the eye can appear similar to PRA-prcd. Genetic testing may help clarify if a dog is affected with PRA-prcd or another inherited condition of the eye.
The recessive gene responsible for this disorder was identified at Cornell University.
Though the exact frequency in the overall Labrador Retriever population is unknown, 10.3% out of 58 Labrador Retrievers from a population from the Czech Republic were carriers of the mutation and 1.7% were affected.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
The D Locus (Dilute) corresponds to the MLPH gene that is important in determining coat color in dogs. Mutations in this gene modify the expression of the pigments, resulting in a “dilution” or lightening of the coat color of dogs. Coat color determination is complex due to interactions of multiple genes responsible for both color and anatomic placement of the color. A dog with two mutant copies of the gene will have a diluted coat color that may be referred to as blue, charcoal, silver, Isabella or fawn (depending on the breed and the base coat color).
Disease Association Note: Mutations of the D locus are sometimes responsible for a condition called color dilution alopecia (hair loss). The clinical presentation of alopecia associated with dilute coat color is variable within and between breeds; therefore, only a portion of individuals carrying two copies of the mutation (d/d) will show hair loss. Though two copies of the mutation (d/d) are necessary to develop color dilution alopecia, the variable presentation of this condition suggests that additional environmental or genetic factors contribute to the development of alopecia. The hair loss is caused by abnormal melanin storage in the hair, which leads to breakage of the hair shaft and the lack of normal regrowth of hair. Dogs with this condition can also be affected with recurrent bacterial skin infections originating in the hair follicles. Given that the modifying environmental or genetic factors responsible for alopecia are unknown, the only way to prevent color dilution alopecia is to not breed carriers or affected dogs.
Other Names: Alopecia, Black hair follicular dysplasia (BHFD), Coat color dilution, Color dilution alopecia (CDA), Color mutant alopecia, D locus, d1 and d2 loci, Dilution gene
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Retinal dysplasia/oculoskeletal dysplasia 1 is an inherited
collagen disorder affecting Labrador Retrievers.
Dwarfism and eye abnormalities may be apparent as early as 4 to 6 weeks of age in affected puppies. The dwarfism is characterized by shortened forelimbs that become curved as the dog grows. In puppies, the top of the head may be noticeably dome shaped compared to littermates. A range of eye abnormalities is visible on a veterinary eye exam of which retinal detachment and cataracts are the most common.
Other Names: Dwarfism with retinal dysplasia 1, Inherited retinal dysplasia, Oculoskeletal dysplasia 1, Retinal dysplasia, DRD1, RD/OSD1
Inheritance: Autosomal Incomplete Dominant, meaning that dogs only need to inherit one copy of the mutated gene to be at an increased risk of developing the disease. In general, Carrier dogs do not have skeletal changes but may have mild eye abnormalities, including retinal folds.
Skeletal Dysplasia 2 is an inherited musculoskeletal disease affecting Labrador Retrievers. Affected dogs develop a mild form of “disproportionate dwarfism” consisting of short legs with normal body length and width. The leg bones are shorter, thicker, and slightly curved and the front legs are frequently more affected than rear legs.
Joints and eyes are not typically affected with this disease. The height of affected dogs is variable, making diagnosis based on physical characteristics alone challenging in some individuals.
Mildly affected dogs from bloodlines known to produce large dogs may still fall within their breed standard for height.
Other Names: Dwarfism, SD2
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive with Incomplete Penetrance, meaning that not all dogs inheriting two copies (one from each parent) will display obvious physical characteristics of dwarfism.
Hereditary Nasal Parakeratosis is an inherited disease affecting the nose beginning around 6 to 12 months of age. HNPK affected dogs develop dry, rough crusts on the tip of the nose, which can crack and be very painful. In some cases, lesions are also present on the haired area around the nose. The nose becomes prone to superficial bacterial infections. Symptoms can change in severity over the dog’s life. Though manageable, this disorder requires continuous topical therapy.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Macular corneal dystrophy is an inherited, progressive eye disease affecting dogs. Affected dogs frequently present around 4 to 6 years of age with clouding of their corneas accompanied by pinpoint white to gray spots made up of an accumulation of a carbohydrate known as glycosaminoglycan. Some affected dogs will also display growth of new blood vessels across the surface of their corneas. The disease will typically progress to compromise vision.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Cystinuria (Labrador retriever type) is an inherited disease affecting kidney function in Labrador retrievers that prevents a dog from reabsorbing cystine from the kidneys. Cystine can form crystals and/or stones in the urinary tract, which can block the urethra and stop the normal flow of urine. Affected male dogs typically present with symptoms at 6 to 14 months of age, while females tend to develop symptoms about a year later than males. Symptoms include straining to urinate, frequent urination of small volumes or inability to urinate. Obstruction of urine flow is more common in males due to differences in anatomy. Dogs with cystinuria often have recurrent inflammation of the urinary tract and if not treated, urinary stones can cause urinary tract infections, kidney failure and even death.
Other Names: Type IA cystinuria
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Degenerative Myelopathy is an inherited neurologic disorder. The average age of onset for dogs with DM is approximately nine years. The disease affects spinal cord tissue and is considered the canine equivalent to Lou Gehrig’s disease in humans. Affected dogs usually present with gradual muscle atrophy and loss of coordination in the hind limbs. The condition is not typically painful for the dog, but will progress until the dog is no longer able to walk. Late in the progression, dogs may lose fecal and urinary continence. Medium to large breed dogs, like the Labrador retriever, can be difficult to manage and owners often elect euthanasia when their dog can no longer support their own weight.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive with Incomplete Penetrance: it is not clear for Labrador retrievers whether dogs carrying two copies of the mutation will develop DM. The variable presentation between breeds suggests that there are environmental or other genetic factors at play.
Ichthyosis (golden retriever type) is an inherited condition of the skin affecting dogs. The age of onset and severity of disease are highly variable, however most affected dogs present before one year of age with flaky skin and dull hair. Over time the skin develops a grayish color and appears thick and scaly, especially over the abdomen. The symptoms may progress to severe scaling all over the body, may improve with age, or may come and go over the dog’s lifetime. While the prognosis is generally good for affected dogs, they are at increased risk for skin infections.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive with Variable Expressivity meaning clinical presentation may vary from mild to severe.
Intervertebral disc disease is an inherited disease affecting many dog breeds. This genetic mutation is also identified as one cause of the characteristic trait for short legs (chondrodystrophy) in some breeds.
IVDD can be extremely painful.
Other Names: CDDY with IVDD, CDPA, Hansen's Type I IVDD, Intervertebral Disc Disease
Inheritance: Autosomal Dominant: A pattern of inheritance in which an 'affected' dog has one copy of the mutation and one normal copy.
Carriers of IVDD should NOT be bred!
Stargardt disease is an inherited eye disease that affects dogs, primarily Labrador Retrievers. Onset of significant clinical signs is late in life, with affected dogs presenting with observable visual problems around 10 years of age. As with other retinal degenerations, such as progressive retinal atrophy, STGD is characterised by the degeneration of the rod and cone photoreceptor cells of the retina. Dogs therefore experience visual deficits in bright and low light conditions. It is a progressive disease and symptoms will get worse as the dog ages.
Other Names: Juvenile Macular Degeneration, STGD
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Note: Stargardt Disease testing became available in early 2021. It is estimated that over 30% of Labrador Retrievers are carriers or affected. Although this is not a 'recommend' test, I highly encourage only getting puppies from breeders who test both the Sire and Dam.
Congenital Myasthenic Syndrome (CMS) is an inherited Neuromuscular Disease affecting Labrador retrievers. Dogs affected with CMS typically present around 2-3 weeks of age with severe exercise-induced weakness of all four limbs leading to collapse. Affected dogs will have decreased reflexes in all limbs and a short-strided gait that becomes more pronounced with exercise. Dogs may be humanely euthanized at a young age due to disease severity. Treatments used for a similar, acquired form of the disease known as myasthenia gravis, are ineffective for CMS.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Progressive retina atrophy, golden retriever 2 (GR-PRA2) is a late onset, inherited eye disease that can also affect Labrador retrievers. Affected dogs begin showing clinical symptoms related to retinal degeneration at around 4 to 5 years of age, though age of onset can vary. Initial clinical signs of progressive retinal atrophy involve changes in reflectivity and appearance of a structure behind the Retina. Progression of the disease leads to thinning of the retinal blood vessels, signifying decreased blood flow to the retina. Affected dogs initially have vision loss in dim light (night blindness) and loss of peripheral vision, progressing to complete blindness.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Progressive retinal atrophy, cone-rod dystrophy 4 is an inherited eye disease affecting dogs.
PRA-crd4 occurs as a result of degeneration of both rod and cone cells of the retina, which are important for vision in dim and bright light. Affected dogs can show symptoms of vision loss or have signs of retinal disease by 3 years of age. However, age of onset varies significantly in PRA-crd4 affected dogs, and has been reported from 1 to 15 years of age. Although progression tends to be relatively slow, most affected dogs (especially those with an early age of onset) will progress to complete blindness.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive with Incomplete Penetrance: meaning that not all 'affected' dogs develop clinical disease. This suggests that other unknown genetic or environmental factors may play a role in modifying disease development and progression.
Cone Degeneration (Labrador retriever type) is an inherited eye disease affecting Labrador retrievers. Affected dogs develop blindness in bright light (day blindness) and light sensitivity between 8 to 12 weeks of age. Affected dogs have normal vision in low light and structures of the inner eye appear normal on eye exam. The cells responsible for vision in low light are not affected and thus, affected dogs will still be able to see normally in low light throughout their life.
Other Names: Achromatopsia, Day blindness, Hemeralopia, Rod monochromacy
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Canine Elliptocytosis is a rare inherited blood disorder. Normal red blood cells are round in shape but red blood cells in affected dogs appear oval-shaped and can have serrated edges. An affected dog may present with mild anemia and may be smaller than its littermates. Elliptocytes can rupture more easily than normally shaped red blood cells. Though this does not normally cause problems in affected dogs, the risk of red blood cell rupture could become more severe if affected dogs have concurrent conditions that compromise cardiovascular health.
Inheritance: Autosomal Dominant: Meaning one or two copies will cause an abnormal RBC shape.
Hyperuricosuria is the excessive excretion of uric acid in the urine. This condition can cause the formation of stones in the bladder or kidneys (uroliths), which is uncomfortable and painful. Clinical signs of HUU can include difficulty urinating, frequent urination, blood in the urine, and urinating in unusual places. Some affected dogs show no clinical signs. The stones are difficult to treat and often require surgical removal. The condition can become life threatening in males if the urinary tract becomes blocked. HUU can occur in any breed.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Myotubular Myopathy is an inherited muscle disease affecting Labrador Retrievers. Affected puppies are typically normal at birth, but between 7 and 19 weeks of age they present with muscle weaknes, decreased muscle mass, a hoarse bark and difficulty eating. Puppies are smaller than littermates, walk with a short, choppy gait and often fall over. The disease rapidly progresses from generalized muscle weakness and frequent episodes of collapse to a complete inability to stand or even raise their heads within 4 weeks of initial presentation. While the disease is not painful, affected dogs are often euthanized between 3 and 6 months of age due to the rapid and severe progression of the disease.
Other Names: X-linked myotubular myopathy, MTM1, XLMTM
Inheritance: X-Linked Recessive: This mutation has a sex-linked recessive inheritance pattern. Because males have only one X chromosome, this disease is expressed mainly in male dogs.
*Females have two X chromosomes and must inherit two abnormal copies to be affected with this disease. Males have only one X chromosome and either have a normal copy of the gene or the mutation.
Narcolepsy (Labrador retriever type) is an inherited disorder affecting Labrador retrievers. The condition is caused within the nervous system resulting in suddenn collapse. The condition produces a range of symptoms, some of the most common include:
Generally, episodes of the condition last a few seconds. Although some dogs can take a few minutes to fully recover from an episode. The disorder is not usually life-threatening.
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Pyruvate kinase deficiency (Labrador retriever type) is an inherited metabolic disease. Affected dogs have insufficient activity of the pyruvate kinase enzyme which breaks down glycogen for energy. Deficiency of this enzyme results in easily damaged red blood cells (hemolysis). Affected dogs typically present between 4 months and 2 years of age. Clinical findings include severe anemia, hardening of the bones, and an enlarged spleen and liver. While dogs can live for several years with this disease, they typically die from severe anemia or liver failure by 5 years of age.
Other Names: Pyruvate kinase deficiency of erythrocytes, PK
Inheritance: Autosomal Recessive
Copper toxicosis (Labrador retriever type) is an inherited metabolic disease resulting in chronic liver failure. Dogs with copper toxicosis have a decreased ability to excrete dietary copper from the body resulting in excessive copper storage in tissues and organs, including the liver, which can result in liver damage and subsequent cirrhosis. Though the age of onset and speed of disease progression are variable, most affected dogs will present in middle age with non-specific signs of liver dysfunction including weight loss, lethargy, weakness, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In late stages of disease, affected dogs may develop signs of liver failure including abdominal swelling, jaundice, and neurological dysfunction.
Mutations of the ATP7A and ATP7B genes have been identified in Labrador retrievers; however, the exact frequency in the overall Labrador population is unknown due to lack of breeders testing &/or reporting the condition.
*Note: A mutation present in the ATP7A gene has been shown to decrease copper accumulation in dogs that have inherited one or two copies of the ATP7B gene mutation.
Other Names: Copper Hepatoxicosis, Copper Storage Disease, Copper Storage Hepatitis, Menkes Gene Disease Modifier, Wilson Disease
Inheritance: Complex Inheritance, meaning copper toxicosis in the Labrador retriever is a complex disease in which both genetic and environmental factors play a role.
The thyroid plays an important role in a dog's immune system and hormone balance.
Canine hypothyroidism is an inherited form of hypothyroidism that occurs in Labradors. Autoimmune lymphocytic thyroiditis is due to a deficiency of the hormones produced by the thyroid gland.
Thyroid disease usually develops by the time the dog is 5 years old and symptoms include weight gain, lethargy and hair loss.
Dogs are rated as normal, autoimmune thyroiditis, or idiopathically reduced thyroid function.
Only 'normal' dogs should be used in breeding programs.
Patellar luxation is considered an inherited disease. Labrador retrievers have been found to be three times as likely as other breeds to have patellar luxation. As a result of a developmental abnormality of the leg bones, the patella (kneecap) tends to become displaced out of the groove in which it is normally positioned on the front of the knee.
Full dentition is the overall health, form, & function of teeth. It's possible some teeth never form, which is considered a genetic condition.
An adult Labrador Retriever should have 42 teeth in total:
20 on top of their jaw and 22 on the bottom.
Puppies will usually have a total of 28 teeth when all of their milk teeth have grown. Puppies will lose their baby teeth between 4-7 months.
Many inherited eye disorders have already been discussed above. I felt it worth mentioning that there are other inherited disorders associated with eyelids that are minor in nature. There are no DNA screening tests for the below:
Entropion: The eyelashes are turned inward in.
Ectropion: The eyelashes are turned outward.
Distichiasis: The eyelashes develop in an abnormal location, emerging from the eyelid margin rather than the eyelid skin.
These conditions can be corrected with minor surgery.
Seizures in Labrador Retrievers can be due to an inherited form of epilepsy. However, seizures are often a result of a wide variety of non-genetic factors. Infections, trauma, low blood sugar levels, toxins and pesticides exposure can result in seizures. Fortunately, this disorder is rare and many dogs respond well to medication; however, this condition can be life-threatening as well.
There is no screening test for the inherited form of epilepsy.
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